oa ‘Twee shishi’: A remembered secular song in Carriols (Virgin Islands Dutch Creole)

References

1. Allsopp, Richard. 1996. Dictionary of Caribbean English Usage. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   [Google Scholar]
2. Anon. 1823. Creol Psalm-Buk of een Vergaedring van Oûwe en Nywe Psalmen na Creol-Sprack [Creole Psalm Book, or a Collection of Old and New Psalms in the Creole Language]. Copenhagen: C. Graebe.
   [Google Scholar]
3. APiCS = Michaelis, Susanne Maria, PhilippeMaurer, MartinHaspelmath, and MagnusHuber, eds. 2013. Atlas of Pidgin and Creole Language Structures Online. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. http://apics-online.info. Accessed May30, 2025.
   [Google Scholar]
4. Appel, Charlotte, PeterBakker, and JoostRobbe. 2024. “Initiating Reading in Creole: Contents and Contexts of Primers in the Danish West Indies, 1770–1825.”Scandinavian Studies in Language15 (2): 198–239. https://doi.org/10.7146/sss.v15i2.152274.
   [Google Scholar]
5. Bakker, Peter. 2014. “Three Dutch Creoles in Comparison.”Journal of Germanic Linguistics26 (3): 191–222. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1470542714000063.
   [Google Scholar]
6. Bakker, Peter, and Heinvan der Voort. 2008. “Grammar of the Creole Language as Used on the Three Danish Islands of St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John in America. Compiled and Written by a Native of St. Thomas.” In Contact Languages: Critical Concepts in Language Studies, edited by JohnHolm and SusanneMichaelis, 15–48. London and New York: Routledge.
   [Google Scholar]
7. Bastide, Roger. 1971. African Civilisations in the New World. New York: Harper & Row.
   [Google Scholar]
8. Bøegh, Kristoffer Friis. 2024. “African Ethnolinguistic Diversity in the Colonial Caribbean: The Case of the Eighteenth-Century Danish West Indies.” In New Research on Circum-Caribbean Creoles and Language Contact, edited by AngelaBartens, PeterSlomanson, and Kristoffer FriisBøegh, 13–63. Studies in Caribbean Languages6. Berlin: Language Science Press. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14282808.
   [Google Scholar]
9. Bøegh, Kristoffer Friis, and PeterBakker. 2021. “Words from Dutch Creole in Virgin Islands Creole English.”Trefwoord2021 (Instituut voor de Nederlandse Taal): 1–38. https://neerlandistiek.nl/2021/09/nieuw-in-trefwoord-3/. Accessed May30, 2025.
   [Google Scholar]
10. Bøegh, Kristoffer Friis, and PeterBakker. 2024. “Dora Richards Miller’s Recollections of a West-Indian Home and Slave-Insurrection: An Introduction Including a Linguistic Discussion of Her Crucian English Creole Texts.”Scandinavian Studies in Language15 (2): 56–106. https://doi.org/10.7146/sss.v15i2.152269.
    [Google Scholar]
11. Bøegh, Kristoffer Friis, and PeterBakker. 2025. “Caribbean, The Typology of Creoles in the.” In The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of World Englishes, edited by KingsleyBolton. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119518297.eowe00298.
    [Google Scholar]
12. Bøegh, Kristoffer Friis, MikaelParkvall, and PeterBakker. 2025. “‘Mij dodte, mij loppe, in mijn lande’: Extending the Horizon on Documented Contact Language Use in the Virgin Islands with a Quote in Incipient Dutch Creole from 1681.”Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1075/jpcl.24004.bxe.
    [Google Scholar]
13. Bøegh, Kristoffer Friis, PeterBakker, Cefasvan Rossem, and RasmusChristensen. 2022. “Seven Newly Discovered 18th and 19th Century Virgin Islands Dutch Creole Texts.” In Caribbean Convivialities and Caribbean Sciences: Inclusive Approaches to the Study of the Languages, Literatures, and Cultures of the Dutch Caribbean and Beyond, edited by NicholasFaraclas, RonaldSevering, SallyDelgado, ElisabethEchteld, and WimRutgers, 93–116. Willemstad: University of Curaçao.
    [Google Scholar]
14. De Josselin de Jong, Jan Petrus Benjamin. 1922–1923. Dagboek Betr. Expeditie naar de Antillen 19 Nov. 1922 – 24 Aug. 1923. Library University Leiden: Collection KITLV, signature: OR 385 (5–6). Manuscript.
    [Google Scholar]
15. De Josselin de Jong, Jan Petrus Benjamin. 1926. Het Huidige Negerhollandsch: Teksten en Woordenlijst. Amsterdam: Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen.
    [Google Scholar]
16. Den Besten, Hans, and Cefasvan Rossem. 2013. “Diplomatische Editie van de Negerhollandse Woordenlijsten van Frank G. Nelson.”Tijdschrift voor Nederlandse Taal- en Letterkunde130 (1), Digital Addendum. http://www.tntl.nl/addenda/Add_DenBestenVanRossem_2013_129_1.pdf. Accessed May30, 2025.
    [Google Scholar]
17. Ghijsen, H.1964. Woordenboek der Zeeuwse Dialecten. Den Haag: Van Goor Zonen.
    [Google Scholar]
18. Graves, Anne Victoria Adams. 1977. The Present State of the Dutch Creole of the Virgin Islands. PhD diss., University of Michigan.
    [Google Scholar]
19. Hall, Neville T.1992. Slave Society in the Danish West Indies: St. Thomas, St. John and St. Croix. Mona, Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press.
    [Google Scholar]
20. Hesseling, D[irk] C[hristiaan]. 1905. Het Negerhollands der Deense Antillen: Bijdrage tot de Geschiedenis der Nederlandse Taal in Amerika. Leiden: A.W. Sijthoff.
    [Google Scholar]
21. Highfield, Arnold R.1979. The French Dialect of St. Thomas, United States Virgin Islands: A Descriptive Grammar with Texts and Glossary. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Karoma Press.
    [Google Scholar]
22. Highfield, Arnold R.2018. The Cultural History of the American Virgin Islands and the Danish West Indies: A Companion Guide. Christiansted, St. Croix: Antilles Press.
    [Google Scholar]
23. Highfield, Arnold R., and Kristoffer F.Bøegh, eds. 2018. Georg Hjersing Høst’s Account of the Island of St. Thomas and Its Governors: Recorded there on the Island from 1769 until 1776. Christiansted, St. Croix, US Virgin Islands: Antilles Press.
    [Google Scholar]
24. Hinskens, Frans. 1995. “Some of the Documents Concerning Negerhollands in the Archives of the Moravian Brethren in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania: A First Impression.” In Amsterdam Creole Studies XXII, edited by TonjesVeenstra and JacquesArends, 87–95. Publikaties van het Instituut voor Algemene Taalwetenschap68. Amsterdam: Instituut voor Algemene Taalwetenschap.
    [Google Scholar]
25. Hinskens, Frans, and Cefasvan Rossem. 1996. “The Negerhollands Word Sender in Eighteenth-Century Manuscripts.” In The Early Stages of Creolization, edited by JacquesArends, 64–88. Creole Language Library13. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
    [Google Scholar]
26. Jensen, Niklas Thode, and GunvorSimonsen. 2016. “Introduction: The Historiography of Slavery in the Danish-Norwegian West Indies, c. 1950–2016.”Scandinavian Journal of History41 (4–5): 475–494. https://doi.org/10.1080/03468755.2016.1210880.
    [Google Scholar]
27. Johansen, Julie Fryd, JesperEckhardt Larsen, and VagnSkovgaard-Petersen, eds. 2008. Skoler i palmernes skygge [Schools in the Shadows of Palms]. Odense: Syddansk Universitetsforlag.
    [Google Scholar]
28. Lawaetz, Eva. 1980. Black Education in the Danish West Indies from 1732 to 1853: The Pioneering Efforts of the Moravian Brethren. Published under the auspices of the American Revolution Bicentennial Commission of the Virgin Islands by St. Croix Friends of Denmark Society.
    [Google Scholar]
29. Leaf, Earl. 1948. Isles of Rhythm. New York: A.S. Barnes & Company.
    [Google Scholar]
30. Lieth-Philipp, Margot. 1989. “Bamboula: Historical, Ethnological, and Linguistic Evidence for a Forgotten Caribbean Music.” In Ethnomusicology and the Historical Dimension, edited by MargotLieth-Philipp, 55–70. Ludwigsburg, Germany: Philipp Verlag.
    [Google Scholar]
31. Lieth-Philipp, Margot. 1990. Die Musikkultur der Jungferninseln: Studien zu ihrer Entwicklung und zu Resultaten von Akkulturationsprozessen. Ludwigsburg, Germany: Philipp Verlag.
    [Google Scholar]
32. Magens, Joachim Melchior. 1770. Grammatica over det creolske Sprog, som bruges paa de trende Danske Eilande, St. Croix, St. Thomas og St. Jans i America [Grammar of the Creole Language as Used on the Three Danish Islands of St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John in America]. Copenhagen: Gerhard Giese Salikath.
    [Google Scholar]
33. Michaelis, Susanne Maria, PhilippeMaurer, MartinHaspelmath, and MagnusHuber, eds. 2013. The Survey of Pidgin and Creole Languages. Volume I: English-based and Dutch-based Languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
    [Google Scholar]
34. Miller, Dora Richards; Bøegh, Kristoffer Friis, and PeterBakker, eds. 2024. “Recollections of a West-Indian Home and Slave-Insurrection.”Scandinavian Studies in Language15(2): 107–159. https://doi.org/10.7146/sss.v15i2.152270.
    [Google Scholar]
35. Muysken, Pieter. 1995. “Studying Variation in Older Texts: Negerhollands.”Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages10(2): 335–347. https://doi.org/10.1075/jpcl.10.2.06muy.
    [Google Scholar]
36. Nelson, Frank G.1936. “Words and Short Texts in Negerhollands, Gathered in St. Thomas, June 1936.” Manuscript. [Published in Van Rossem 2017.]
    [Google Scholar]
37. Nicholls, Robert W.1998. Old-time Masquerading in the US Virgin Islands. St. Thomas: The Virgin Islands Humanities Council.
    [Google Scholar]
38. Nicholls, Robert W.2012. The Jumbies’ Playing Ground: Old World Influences on Afro-Creole Masquerades in the Eastern Caribbean. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi.
    [Google Scholar]
39. Oldendorp, C.G.A.1777. Geschichte der Mission der evangelischen Brüder auf den caraibischen Inseln S. Thomas, S. Croix und S. Jan, herausgegeben durch Johann Jakob Bossart. Barby: Laux.
    [Google Scholar]
40. Oldendorp, C.G.A.2000–2002. Historie der caribischen Inseln Sanct Thomas, Sanct Crux und Sanct Jan insbesondere der dasigen Neger und der Mission der evangelischen Bruder unter denselben. Kommentierte Ausgabe des vollständigen Manuskriptes aus dem Archiv der Evangelischen Brüder-Unität Herrnhut. Edited by HartmutBeck, GudrunMeier, StephanPalmié, PeterStein, and HorstUlbricht. 4 vols. Berlin: VWB-Verlag für Wissenschaft und Bildung.
    [Google Scholar]
41. Parkvall, Mikael. [n.d.] Afrolex: African Lexical Influences in Creoles and Transplanted European Languages. Manuscript/database.
    [Google Scholar]
42. Robbe, Joost, and PeterBakker. 2024. “A Grammatical and Graphematic Comparison of Five Creole Primers from the Danish West Indies (1770–1825), with a Preliminary Phonemic Inventory.”Scandinavian Studies in Language15(2): 240–288. https://doi.org/10.7146/sss.v15i2.152275.
    [Google Scholar]
43. Sabino, Robin. 2012. Language Contact in the Danish West Indies: Giving Jack His Jacket. Leiden: Brill.
    [Google Scholar]
44. Schmidt, J.C.1788. “Blandede Anmærkninger, samlede paa og over Ejlandet St. Kroix i Amerika” [Miscellaneous Remarks, Collected on and about the Island of St. Croix in America]. In “Anmerkninger over Ejlandet St. Kroix i Vestindien af Herr J.C. Schmidt,” Samleren, et Ugeskrift, AndetBind, ed. Laurits HvidBøgh, 2: No. 39, pp. 198–206; No. 40, pp. 214–224; No. 41, pp. 225–240; No. 42, pp. 241–250; No. 43, pp. 259–263. Copenhagen: Laurits Hvid Bøgh.
    [Google Scholar]
45. Sensbach, Jon F.2005. Rebecca’s Revival: Creating Black Christianity in the Atlantic World. Cambridge, MA; London: Harvard University Press.
    [Google Scholar]
46. Sheehy, Daniel E.1998. “The Virgin Islands.” In Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, vol. 2: South America, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean, edited by Dale A.Olsen and Daniel E.Sheehy, 968–974. New York and London: Garland Publishing.
    [Google Scholar]
47. Soule, MaryJane. 1993–2025. Soule Archive: Folklife of St. Croix and St. Thomas. US Library of Congress, American Folklife Center, 2014; Royal Danish Library, 1993, 2014; University of the Virgin Islands Collections at the Digital Library of the Caribbean (dLOC), 2025. [Recordings and texts featuring transcriptions, metadata, and introductory notes.]
    [Google Scholar]
48. Sprauve, Gilbert A.1984. Recording of Virgin Islands Dutch Creole Stories (AFC 1984/083). Archive of Folk Culture, American Folklife Center, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. [Tape recording of conversation between Mrs. AliceStevens and Gilbert A.Sprauve.]
    [Google Scholar]
49. Sprauve, Gilbert A.1985. Maritšimát en Stédifi: The Story of Black Witch and Ground Dove as Told by Mrs. Alice Stevens. St. Thomas: College of the Virgin Islands. [Cassette tape and transcription in Carriols and English.]
    [Google Scholar]
50. Stein, Peter. 1986. “The Documents concerning the Negro-Dutch Language of the Danish Virgin Islands, St. Thomas, St. Croix, and St. John – Negerhollands –, in the Unitäts-Archiv (Archives of the Moravian Brethren) at Herrnhut. A Commented Bibliography.” In Papers on Negerhollands, the Dutch Creole of the Virgin Islands, edited by Hansden Besten, 19–31. Amsterdam Creole Studies IX. Publikaties van het Instituut voor Algemene Taalwetenschap51. Amsterdam: Instituut voor Algemene Taalwetenschap.
    [Google Scholar]
51. Stein, Peter. 2013. “Histoire d’une langue créole, le Negerhollands, 1736–1985, suivie d’une étude du début de la grammaticographie créole: C.G.A. Oldendorp.” In Créolité, Créolisation: Regards Croisés, edited by LaurencePourchez, 53–78. Paris: Éditions des Archives Contemporaines.
    [Google Scholar]
52. Stein, Peter. 2014. “Dr. med. Erik Pontoppidan und das Negerhollands.” In Ausgewählte Arbeiten der Kreolistik des XIX. Jahrhunderts: Selected Works from XIXth Century Creolistics, edited by PhilipKrämer, 109–121. Hamburg: Buske.
    [Google Scholar]
53. Stein, Peter. 2024. “Grammaticography of Virgin Islands Dutch Creole (Negerhollands) from the Danish West Indies: Oldendorp and Magens.”Scandinavian Studies in Language15(2): 180–197. https://doi.org/10.7146/sss.v15i2.152273.
    [Google Scholar]
54. Stein, Peter, and Heinvan der Voort, eds. 1996. Christian Georg Andreas Oldendorp, Criolisches Wörterbuch. Erster zu vermehrender und wo nöthig zu verbessernder Versuch [1767/68], herausgegeben, eingeleitet und mit Anmerkungen versehen von Peter Stein, sowie das anonyme, J.C. Kingo zugeschriebene Vestindisk Glossarium, herausgegeben, eingeleitet und mit Anmerkungen versehen von Hein van der Voort. Lexicographica Series Maior69. Tübingen: Niemeyer.
    [Google Scholar]
55. Stolz, Thomas. 1986. Gibt es das kreolische Sprachwandelmodell? Vergleichende Grammatik des Negerholländischen. Frankfurt am Main; New York: Lang.
    [Google Scholar]
56. Stroop, Jan. 2015. “Nogmaals OOM en NONKEL.”https://neerlandistiek.nl/2015/06/nogmaals-oom-en-nonkel/. Accessed May30, 2025.
    [Google Scholar]
57. Taylor, Charles Edwin. 1888. Leaflets from the Danish West Indies: Descriptive of the Social, Political, and Commercial Condition of These Islands. St. Thomas: Self-published.
    [Google Scholar]
58. Valls, Lito. 1981. What a Pistarckle! A Glossary [Dictionary] of Virgin Islands English Creole. St. John: Self-published.
    [Google Scholar]
59. Valls, Lito. 1983. Ole Time Sayin’s. Proverbs of the West Indies. St. John, U.S. V.I.: Self-published.
    [Google Scholar]
60. Van Rossem, Cefas. 2017. The Virgin Islands Dutch Creole Textual Heritage: Philological Perspectives on Authenticity and Audience Design. Utrecht: LOT.
    [Google Scholar]
61. Van Rossem, Cefas. 2024. “The Suspicion Confirmed: J.P.B. de Josselin de Jong’s 1923 Linguistic Fieldwork in St. Thomas and St. John on Virgin Islands Dutch Creole.”Scandinavian Studies in Language15 (2): 16–55. https://doi.org/10.7146/sss.v15i2.152268.
    [Google Scholar]
62. Van Rossem, Cefas, and Heinvan der Voort, eds. 1996. Die Creol Taal: 250 Years of Negerhollands Texts. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
    [Google Scholar]
63. Van Sluijs, Robbert. 2013. “Negerhollands.” In The Survey of Pidgin and Creole Languages. Volume I: English-based and Dutch-based Languages, edited by SusanneMaria Michaelis, PhilippeMaurer, MartinHaspelmath, and MagnusHuber, 265–274. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
    [Google Scholar]
64. Van Sluijs, Robbert. 2014. Manual for the Use of NEHOL. Nijmegen: Languages in Contact (LinC) Group, Radboud University Nijmegen & The Language Archive (TLA), Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, Clarin.
    [Google Scholar]
65. Van Sluijs, Robbert. 2017. Variation and Change in Virgin Islands Dutch Creole: Tense, Modality and Aspect. Utrecht: LOT.
    [Google Scholar]
66. Weed, Thurlow. 1866. Letters from Europe and the West Indies. 1843–1862. Albany, NY: Weed, Parsons and Company.
    [Google Scholar]
67. Zoop Zoop Zoop: Traditional Music and Folklore of St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John. 1993. New York: New World Records. [Compact disc and notes. Producer: MaryJane Soule. Ethnomusicologist: Margot Lieth-Philipp.]
    [Google Scholar]