2004
Volume 13, Issue 2/3
  • ISSN: 2212-4810
  • E-ISSN: 2212-6465
file format pdf download PDF

Samenvatting

Abstract

Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine has created enormous threats and challenges to Ukraine and Ukrainians in a variety of spheres. Religion is no exception. The Russian Orthodox Church (ROC) has endorsed and supported Putin’s attack of Ukraine. In response, the Ukrainian Parliament adopted Law No. 3894-IX banning the ROC and establishing a procedure to ban the Ukrainian Orthodox Church and its organizations as affiliated with the ROC unless they cut their connections with the ROC. Our analysis shows that the law does not comply with international FoRB standards. This conclusion is based on two basic premises. First, FoRB is a non-derogable right and cannot be limited by merely referring to the state of existential emergency; even in times of war, FoRB limitations must meet the necessity test required by Article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). Second, while the war can potentially justify broader FoRB limitations, the law does not comply with the necessity requirement as, given publicly available information, the Ukrainian government has so far failed to demonstrate that the UOC is institutionally involved in the activities undermining national security. Consequently, in violation of Article 18.3 of the ICCPR, the law imposes the ban merely for religious reasons (ecclesiastical connections with the Russian church) and is not necessary.

© Elizabeth A. Clark & Dmytro Vovk. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC BY-NC 4.0 license http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.5117/JLRS2025.2.3.005.CLAR
2025-12-01
2026-04-26

Metrics

Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/22126465/13/2/3/JLRS2025.2.3.005.CLAR.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.5117/JLRS2025.2.3.005.CLAR&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

References

  1. Coleman, Michelle. “The Russian Orthodox Church and International Crimes: Exploring the Potential for Religious Leadership Liability for Crimes Committed in the War in Ukraine”. Journal of Law, Religion and State13, no. 2–3 (2026): XXX.
     [Google Scholar]
  2. Council of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church. “Resolution of the Council of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of May 27, 2022”. Accessed 31December2025. https://news.church.ua/2022/05/28/resolutions-council-ukrainian-orthodox-church-may-27-2022/?lang=en#2024-07-12.
  3. Evans, Carolyn. Freedom of Religion under the European Convention of Human Rights. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
     [Google Scholar]
  4. Hartman, Joan F.“Working Paper for the Committee of Experts on the Article 4 Derogation Provision”. Human Rights Quarterly7, no. 1 (1985): 113.
     [Google Scholar]
  5. Havrylov, Vladyslav. “How Russians Deport Ukrainians and What the Russian Orthodox Church Has to Do with It”. WAOP?. Accessed 31December2025. https://deportation.org.ua/how-russians-deport-ukrainians-and-what-the-russian-orthodox-church-has-to-do-with-it/.
     [Google Scholar]
  6. Kilp, Alar, and Jerry G.Pankhurst. “Soft, Sharp, and Evil Power: The Russian Orthodox Church in the Russian Invasion of Ukraine”. Occasional Papers on Religion in Eastern Europe42, no. 5 (2022): 1–21. https://doi.org/10.55221/2693-2148.2361.
     [Google Scholar]
  7. Metropolitan of Kyiv and All Ukraine Onufryi. Letter No. 0838 of 28 September 2022. Accessed 31December2025. https://dess.gov.ua/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/4-Vidpovid-UPTS.pdf.
  8. Nowak, Manfred. UN Covenant on Civil and Political Right. CCPR Commentary. 2nd rev. ed. Kehl am Rhein: Engel, 2005.
     [Google Scholar]
  9. Nowak, Manfred, and TanjaVospernik. “Permissible Restrictions on Freedom of Religion or Belief”. In Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook, edited by ToreLindholm, W.Cole Durham, Jr., and BahiaTahzib-Lie. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2004.
     [Google Scholar]
  10. NTA TV channel. “De u Lvovi dosi molyatsya za putina I patriarcha kirila?” [Where in Lviv Do People Still Pray for Putin and Patriarch Kirill?]. YouTube video, 15:17. 5October2025. https://www.youtube.com/live/RUs4Cs1lA7M.
  11. Razumkov Centre. “Religiosity, Trust in the Church, Confessional Affiliation and Inter-Church Relations in Ukrainian Society (October 2024)”. 19January2025. https://razumkov.org.ua/en/component/k2/religiosity-trust-in-the-church-confessional-division-and-inter-church-relations-in-ukrainian-society-october-2024.
  12. Security Service of Ukraine. “Z pochatku povnomashtabnoho vtorhnennya za materialamy SBU rozpochato ponad 200 kryminalnyh provadzhen scshodo klirykiv UPTs (MP)” [Since the Beginning of the Full-Scale Invasion, More Than 200 Criminal Cases Were Initiated Based on the SBU Materials]. Accessed 31December2025. https://ssu.gov.ua/novyny/z-pochatku-povnomasshtabnoho-vtorhnennia-za-materialamy-sbu-rozpochato-ponad-200-kryminalnykh-provadzhen-shchodo-klirykiv-upts-mp.
  13. Stoeckl, Kristina. “The Pact of the Old Guard: Religion, Law, and Politics for a Russia at War”. Journal of Law and Religion39, no. 3 (2024): 482–493. https://doi.org/10.1017/jlr.2024.22.
     [Google Scholar]
  14. Synodal Information and Education Department of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church. “The Metropolis of Kyiv Has Sent a Letter to DESS on Issues of the State Policy Towards the UOC”. 17August2025. https://uoc-news.church/2025/08/17/the-metropolis-of-kyiv-has-sent-a-letter-to-dess-on-issues-of-the-state-policy-towards-the-uoc/?lang=en.
  15. Taylor, Paul. A Commentary on The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: The UN Human Rights Committee’s Monitoring of ICCPR Rights. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108689458.
     [Google Scholar]
  16. Vasin, Maksym. “New Religious Legislation in Ukraine as a Response to Russian Aggression”. In Security, Religion, and the Rule of Law: International Perspectives, edited by TaniaPagotto, Joshua M.Roose, and G. P.Marcar. London/New York: Routledge, 2024. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003453086-8.
     [Google Scholar]
  17. Vovk, Dmytro. “Between National Security and Spiritual Liberation: Ukrainian State Policies Toward the Ukrainian Orthodox Church”. Canadian Slavonic Papers67, no. 1–2 (2025): 13–30, https://doi.org/10.1080/00085006.2025.2494937.
     [Google Scholar]
  18. Vovk, Dmytro. “The President and (Not His) Religion. Evolution of Volodymyr Zelenskyi’s Religion-State Policies Amidst the War with Russia”. Public Orthodoxy. 7June2025. https://publicorthodoxy.org/good-reads/president-and-not-his-religion/.
     [Google Scholar]
  19. Vovk, Dmytro. “UKRAINE: Real Threats, but Freedom of Religion or Belief Concerns”. Forum 18. 24August2024. https://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2929.
     [Google Scholar]
  20. Yerermyshyn, Zoryana. “Rada tserkov pri Chernivetskiy ODA vyklychyla UPTs-MP” [The Church Council under the Chernivtsi OSA Expelled the UOC-MP]. Zahid.net. 17September2024. https://zaxid.net/rada_tserkov_pri_chernivetskiy_ova_viklyuchila_zi_svogo_skladu_upts_mp_n1593869.
     [Google Scholar]
  21. Council of Europe Directorate of Legal Advice and Public International Law. “Note of Information”. 30April2024. https://rm.coe.int/1680af84ff.
  22. European Commission for Democracy Through Law. “Ukraine. Amicus Brief on Alternative (Non-Military) Service” No. CDL-AD(2025)006. 18March2025. https://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/default.aspx?pdffile=CDL-AD(2025)006-e.
  23. OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights. “Policy Guidance on Freedom of Religion or Belief and Security”. 9September2019. https://odihr.osce.org/odihr/429389.
  24. President of Ukraine. “Decree No. 64/2022” [in Ukrainian]. 24February2022. https://www.president.gov.ua/documents/642022-41397.
  25. Ukrainian State Service for Ethnic Affairs and Freedom of Conscience. “Order No. N-107/11 of 17 July 2025” [in Ukrainian]. https://dess.gov.ua/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/2025_07_17_Nakaz_Zatverdzhennia_1_Pereliku.pdf.
  26. Ukrainian State Service for Ethnic Affairs and Freedom of Conscience. “Prypys pro usunennya porushen’ zakonodavstva pro svobodu sovisti ta relihiozni organizatsiyi” [Order to Eliminate the Violation of the Legislation on Freedom of Conscience and Religious Organizations]. 17July2025. https://dess.gov.ua/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/Prypys_KM-UPTS-12.pdf.
  27. Ukrainian State Service for Ethnic Affairs and Freedom of Conscience. “Rezultaty doslidzhennya shchodo pytannya nayavnosti oznak afiliiovanisti Kyiyivskoyi Mytropoliyi Ukraiyinskoyi Pravoslavnoyi Tserkvy z inozemnoyu relihiyinou organizatsiyeyu, dialnist yakoyi zaboroneno” [Conclusion on the Study of the Kyiv Metropolis of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church’s Affiliation Signs with the Foreign Religious Organization Whose Operation is Prohibited in Ukraine]. 8July2025. https://dess.gov.ua/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/Doslidzhennia-KM-UPTS-2.pdf.
  28. UN Economic and Social Council. “Siracusa Principles on the Limitation and Derogation Provisions in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, E/CN.4/1985/4, Annex (1985)”. 28September1984. https://www.refworld.org/legal/resolution/unchr/1984/en/57200.
  29. UN General Assembly. “Draft International Covenants on Human Rights, Report of the Third Committee, A/5655”. 10December1963. https://documents.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/n63/286/01/pdf/n6328601.pdf.
  30. UN General Assembly. 18th Session, 3rd Committee: 1261st Meeting. “Official Records”. 12November1963. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/803277?ln=fr&v=pdf.
  31. UN Human Rights Committee. “CCPR General Comment No. 22: Article 18 (Freedom of Thought, Conscience or Religion)”. 30July1993. https://www.refworld.org/legal/general/hrc/1993/en/13375.
  32. UN Human Rights Committee. “CCPR General Comment No. 29: Article 4: Derogations during a State of Emergency”. 31August2001,. https://www.refworld.org/legal/general/hrc/2001/en/30676.
  33. Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine. “Law of Ukraine on the protection of the constitutional order in the sphere of activities of religious organization (No 3894-IX)” [in Ukrainian]. 20August2024. Accessed 31December2025. https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/3894-20#Text%20Law%20No.%203894-IX.
  34. Gonzales v. O Centro Espirita Beneficente Uniao do Vegetal, 546 U.S. 418 (2006).
     [Google Scholar]
  35. The Sunday Times v. the United Kingdom, European Court of Human Rights, App. No. 6538/74, 26April1978.
     [Google Scholar]
  36. Wisconsin v. Yoder, 406 U.S. 205 (1972).
     [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.5117/JLRS2025.2.3.005.CLAR
Loading
  • Soort artikel: Research Article
Keyword(s): freedom of religion or belief; national security; non-derogable rights; Russia-Ukraine war; Russian Orthodox Church; Ukrainian Orthodox Church

Meest geciteerd Most Cited RSS feed

Dit is een verplicht veld
Graag een geldig e-mailadres invoeren
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error