2004
  1. Home
  2. A-Z Publications
  3. Mens & Maatschappij
  4. Volume 100, Issue 2
  5. Article
Volume 100, Issue 2
  • ISSN: 0025-9454
  • E-ISSN: 1876-2816
file format pdf download PDF

Abstract

Abstract

In recent years, the debate on social inequality in both academia and politics has focused heavily on differences in income and wealth, the transformation of labor markets, and the nature of meritocracy in advanced capitalist societies. This article looks beyond that, using a framework of four types of resources: economic, cultural, social and person capital (the combination of someone’s health and attractiveness). A dedicated survey was linked to microdata from national registers in the Netherlands, resulting in a dataset with expanded and more refined indicators than in previous work. Latent class analysis identifies seven distinct social classes. The working upper echelon (19.9% of the Dutch adult population) has the most capital, followed by privileged younger people (8.6%), the leisured upper echelon (12.2%), the employed middle echelon (24.9%), low-education pensioners (18.1%), insecure workers (10.0%), and the precariat (6.3%). These class distinctions are to some extent coupled with intersectionality. Multinomial logistic regression suggests that age, ethnic background, and household composition are significant predictors of class membership, while gender has a more limited impact. Addressing these inequalities requires a three-pronged policy strategy, involving investments at key life transitions, institutional complementarity across policy domains, and welfare policies based on targeting within universalism.

© J. Cok Vrooman, Jeroen Boelhouwer & Jurjen Iedema
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.5117/MEM2025.2.003.VROO
2025-06-01
2025-08-22
The full text of this item is not currently available.

References

  1. Alecu, A., Helland, H., Hjellbrekke, J., & Jarness, V. (2022). Who you know: The classed structure of social capital. The British Journal of Sociology, 73(3), 505-535. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-4446.12945
     [Google Scholar]
  2. Anderson, T. L., Grunert, C., Katz, A., & Lovascio, S. (2010). Aesthetic Capital: A Research Review on Beauty Perks and Penalties. Sociology Compass, 4(8), 564-575. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9020.2010.00312.x
     [Google Scholar]
  3. Atkinson, W. (2008). Not all that was solid has melted into air (or liquid): A critique of Bauman on individualization and class in liquid modernity. The Sociological Review, 56(1), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-954X.2008.00774.x
     [Google Scholar]
  4. Axelsson Fisk, S., Mulinari, S., Wemrell, M., Leckie, G., Vicente, R. P., & Merlo, J. (2018). Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in Sweden: an intersectional multilevel analysis of individual heterogeneity and discriminatory accuracy. SSM-Population Health, 4, 334-346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2018.03.005
     [Google Scholar]
  5. Azarnert, L. V. (2020). Health capital provision and human capital accumulation. Oxford Economic Papers, 72(3), 633-650. https://doi.org/10.1093/oep/gpaa004
     [Google Scholar]
  6. Bask, M., & Bask, M. (2015). Cumulative (Dis)Advantage and the Matthew Effect in Life-Course Analysis. Plos One, 10(11), e0142447. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0142447
     [Google Scholar]
  7. Bauer, G. R., Churchill, S. M., Mahendran, M., Walwyn, C., Lizotte, D., & Villa-Rueda, A. A. (2021). Intersectionality in quantitative research: A systematic review of its emergence and applications of theory and methods. SSM-Population Health, 14, 100798. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2021.100798
     [Google Scholar]
  8. Bauman, Z. (2012). Liquid Modernity (2 ed.). Polity Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  9. Bauman, Z. (Ed.). (2023). History and Politics: Selected Writings, Volume 2 (K.Bartoszyńska, Trans.). Polity Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  10. Baumann, S., Huddart Kennedy, E., & Johnston, J. (2022). Moral and aesthetic consecration and higher status consumers’ tastes: The “good” food revolution. Poetics, 92, 101654. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.poetic.2022.101654
     [Google Scholar]
  11. Beck, U. (1992). Risk society: Towards a new modernity. Sage.
     [Google Scholar]
  12. Beck, U. (2016). The Metamorphosis of the World. Polity Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  13. Becker, G. S. (1993). Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, with Special Reference to Education (3 ed.). The University of Chicago Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  14. Berggren, N., Jordahl, H., & Poutvaara, P. (2017). The right look: Conservative politicians look better and voters reward it. Journal of Public Economics, 146, 79-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2016.12.008
     [Google Scholar]
  15. Bloothooft, G., & Onland, D. (2011). Socioeconomic determinants of first names. Names; A Journal of Onomastics, 59(1), 25-41. https://doi.org/10.1179/002777311X12942225544679
     [Google Scholar]
  16. Bloothooft, G., & Onland, D. (2016). Multiple first names in the Netherlands (1760–2014). Names, 64(1), 3-18. https://doi.org/10.1080/00277738.2016.1118860
     [Google Scholar]
  17. Bourdieu, P. (1986). The Forms of Capital. In J. G.Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education (pp. 241-258). Greenwood.
     [Google Scholar]
  18. Burt, R. S. (1982). Toward a Structural Theory of Action: Network Models of Social Structure, Perception, and Action. Academic Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  19. Burt, R. S. (1992). Structural Holes: The Social Structure of Competition. Harvard University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  20. Byun, S.-y., Chung, H. J., & Baker, D. P. (2018). Global Patterns of the Use of Shadow Education: Student, Family, and National Influences. Research in the Sociology of Education, 20, 71-105. https://doi.org/10.1108/S1479-353920180000020004
     [Google Scholar]
  21. Carfagna, L. B., Dubois, E. A., Fitzmaurice, C., Ouimette, M. Y., Schor, J. B., Willis, M., & Laidley, T. (2014). An emerging eco-habitus: The reconfiguration of high cultural capital practices among ethical consumers. Journal of Consumer Culture, 14(2), 158-178. https://doi.org/10.1177/1469540514526227
     [Google Scholar]
  22. Chan, T. W. (2019). Understanding cultural omnivores: Social and political attitudes. The British Journal of Sociology, 70(3), 784-806. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-4446.12613
     [Google Scholar]
  23. Cole, E. R. (2008). Coalitions as a model for intersectionality: From practice to theory. Sex Roles, 59, 443-453. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9419-1
     [Google Scholar]
  24. Coleman, J. S. (1988). Social Capital in the Creation Of Human Capital. American Journal of Sociology, 94(supplement).
     [Google Scholar]
  25. Coleman, J. S. (1990). Foundations of Social Theory. Harvard University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  26. Crabtree, C., Gaddis, S. M., Holbein, J. B., & Larsen, E. N. (2022). Racially distinctive names signal both race/ethnicity and social class. Sociological Science, 9, 454-472. https://doi.org/10.15195/v9.a18
     [Google Scholar]
  27. Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 139-167.
     [Google Scholar]
  28. Deng, W., Li, D., & Zhou, D. (2020). Beauty and Job Accessibility: New Evidence from a Field Experiment. Journal of Population Economics, 33(4), 1303-1341.
     [Google Scholar]
  29. Di Stasio, V., & Larsen, E. N. (2020). The racialized and gendered workplace: applying an intersectional lens to a field experiment on hiring discrimination in five European labor markets. Social Psychology Quarterly, 83(3), 229-250. https://doi.org/10.1177/0190272520902994
     [Google Scholar]
  30. DiPrete, T. A., & Eirich, G. M. (2006). Cumulative advantage as a mechanism for inequality: A review of theoretical and empirical developments. Annual Review of Sociology, 32, 271-297. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.32.061604.123127
     [Google Scholar]
  31. Elchardus, M., & Siongers, J. (2011). First Names as Collective Identifiers: An Empirical Analysis of the Social Meanings of First Names. Cultural Sociology, 5(3), 403-422. https://doi.org/10.1177/1749975510390748
     [Google Scholar]
  32. Else-Quest, N. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2016). Intersectionality in quantitative psychological research: I. Theoretical and epistemological issues. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(2), 155-170. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684316629797
     [Google Scholar]
  33. Entrich, S. R. (2021). Worldwide Shadow Education and Social Inequality: Explaining Differences in the Socioeconomic Gap in Access to Shadow Education across 63 Societies. International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 61(6), 441-475. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020715220987861
     [Google Scholar]
  34. Erikson, R., & Goldthorpe, J. H. (1992). The Constant Flux: A Study of Class Mobility in Industrial Societies. Clarendon Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  35. Erikson, R., Goldthorpe, J. H., & Portocarero, L. (1979). Intergenerational Class Mobility in Three Western European Societies: England, France and Sweden. The British Journal of Sociology, 30(4), 303-343.
     [Google Scholar]
  36. Evans, C. R., Leckie, G., Subramanian, S., Bell, A., & Merlo, J. (2024). A tutorial for conducting intersectional multilevel analysis of individual heterogeneity and discriminatory accuracy (MAIHDA). SSM-Population Health, 101664. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2024.101664
     [Google Scholar]
  37. Evans, C. R., Williams, D. R., Onnela, J.-P., & Subramanian, S. V. (2018). A multilevel approach to modeling health inequalities at the intersection of multiple social identities. Social Science & Medicine, 203, 64-73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.11.011
     [Google Scholar]
  38. Femia, J. V., & Marshall, A. J. (2012). Vilfredo Pareto: Beyond Disciplinary Boundaries. Ashgate.
     [Google Scholar]
  39. Friedman, S., & Laurison, D. (2019). The Class Ceiling: Why it Pays to be Privileged. Policy Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  40. Fryer, R. G., & Levitt, S. D. (2004). The Causes and Consequences of Distinctively Black Names. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 119(3), 767-805. https://doi.org/10.1162/0033553041502180
     [Google Scholar]
  41. Garritzmann, J. L., Häusermann, S., & Palier, B. (2022a). The world politics of social investment: Volume I: Welfare states in the knowledge economy. Oxford University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  42. Garritzmann, J. L., Häusermann, S., & Palier, B. (2022b). The world politics of social investment: Volume II: The politics of varying social investment strategies. Oxford University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  43. Granovetter, M. S. (1974). Getting a Job: A Study of Contacts and Careers. Harvard University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  44. Grossman, M. (1972). On The Concept of Health Capital and the Demand for Health. Journal of Political Economy, 80(2), 223-255. https://doi.org/10.7312/gros17812-004
     [Google Scholar]
  45. Gründler, K., Potrafke, N., & Wochner, T. (2024). The beauty premium of politicians in office. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 217, 298-311.
     [Google Scholar]
  46. Hakim, C. (2010). Erotic Capital. European Sociological Review, 26(5), 499-518. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcq014
     [Google Scholar]
  47. Hamermesh, D. S. (2011). Beauty Pays: Why Attractive People Are More Successful. Princeton University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  48. Hancock, A.-M. (2007). When multiplication doesn’t equal quick addition: Examining intersectionality as a research paradigm. Perspectives on Politics, 5(1), 63-79. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592707070065
     [Google Scholar]
  49. Haynes, K. (2012). Body Beautiful? Gender, Identity and the Body in Professional Services Firms. Gender, Work and Organization, 19(5), 489-507. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0432.2011.00583.x
     [Google Scholar]
  50. Hemerijck, A. (2018). Social investment as a policy paradigm. Journal of European Public Policy, 25(6), 810-827. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2017.1401111
     [Google Scholar]
  51. Hoff, S., Vrooman, C., Iedema, J., Boelhouwer, J., & Kullberg, J. (2021). Verschil in Nederland 2014-2020; Zes sociale klassen en hun visies op politiek en samenleving. Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau. https://tinyurl.com/5ez7ccm7
     [Google Scholar]
  52. Hoffmann, R., Kröger, H., & Geyer, S. (2019). Social Causation Versus Health Selection in the Life Course: Does Their Relative Importance Differ by Dimension of SES?Social Indicators Research, 141(3), 1341-1367. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-018-1871-x
     [Google Scholar]
  53. Huddart Kennedy, E., Baumann, S., & Johnston, J. (2019). Eating for taste and eating for change: Ethical consumption as a high-status practice. Social Forces, 98(1), 381-402. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soy113
     [Google Scholar]
  54. Jacques, O., & Noël, A. (2021). Targeting within universalism. Journal of European Social Policy, 31(1), 15-29.
     [Google Scholar]
  55. Jæger, M. M. (2022). Cultural capital and educational inequality: An assessment of the state of the art. In K.Gërxhani, N. D.de Graaf, & W.Raub (Eds.), Handbook of Sociological Science; Contributions to Rigorous Sociology (pp. 121-134). Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781789909432
     [Google Scholar]
  56. Kanazawa, S., & Still, M. C. (2018). Is There Really a Beauty Premium or an Ugliness Penalty on Earnings?Journal of Business and Psychology, 33(2), 249-262.
     [Google Scholar]
  57. Keller, L., Lüdtke, O., Preckel, F., & Brunner, M. (2023). Educational inequalities at the intersection of multiple social categories: An introduction and systematic review of the multilevel analysis of individual heterogeneity and discriminatory accuracy (MAIHDA) approach. Educational Psychology Review, 35(1), 31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09733-5
     [Google Scholar]
  58. Kern, M. R., Duinhof, E. L., Walsh, S. D., Cosma, A., Moreno-Maldonado, C., Molcho, M., Currie, C., & Stevens, G. W. (2020). Intersectionality and adolescent mental well-being: A cross-nationally comparative analysis of the interplay between immigration background, socioeconomic status and gender. Journal of Adolescent Health, 66(6), S12-S20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2020.02.013
     [Google Scholar]
  59. King, D. K. (1988). Multiple jeopardy, multiple consciousness: The context of a Black feminist ideology. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 14(1), 42-72. https://doi.org/10.1086/494491
     [Google Scholar]
  60. Kröger, H., Pakpahan, E., & Hoffmann, R. (2015). What Causes Health Inequality? A Systematic Review on the Relative Importance of Social Causation and Health Selection. European Journal of Public Health, 25(6), 951-960. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckv111
     [Google Scholar]
  61. Kuipers, G. (2015). Beauty and Distinction? The Evaluation of Appearance and Cultural Capital in Five European Countries. Poetics, 53, 38-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.poetic.2015.10.001
     [Google Scholar]
  62. Lee, R. L. M. (2011). Modernity, Solidity and Agency: Liquidity Reconsidered. Sociology, 45(4), 650-664. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038511406
     [Google Scholar]
  63. Lieberson, S., & Bell, E. O. (1992). Children’s First Names: An Empirical Study of Social Taste. American Journal of Sociology, 98(3), 511-554. https://doi.org/10.1086/230048
     [Google Scholar]
  64. Lin, N. (1999). Building a network theory of social capital. Connections, 22(1), 28-51.
     [Google Scholar]
  65. Lin, N. (2000). Inequality in Social Capital. Contemporary Sociology, 29(6), 785-799.
     [Google Scholar]
  66. Lindsay, J., & Dempsey, D. (2017). First names and social distinction: Middle-class naming practices in Australia. Journal of Sociology, 53(3), 577-591. https://doi.org/10.1177/1440783317690925
     [Google Scholar]
  67. Lundberg, O. (2020). Is Lack of Causal Evidence Linking Socioeconomic Position with Health an ‘Inconvenient Truth’?European Journal of Public Health, 30(4), 615. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckaa004
     [Google Scholar]
  68. Mackenbach, J. P. (2019). Health Inequalities: Persistence and Change in European Welfare States. Oxford University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  69. Marmot, M. (2010). Fair society, healthy lives: Strategic review of health inequalities in England post-2010. The Marmot Review.
     [Google Scholar]
  70. McDonald, S., Côté, R., & Shen, J. (2024). Handbook on Inequality and Social Capital.
  71. McPherson, M., Smith-Lovin, L., & Cook, J. M. (2001). Birds of a Feather: Homophily in Social Networks. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 415-444. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.415
     [Google Scholar]
  72. Merton, R. K. (1968). The Matthew effect in science. Science, 159(3810), 56-63.
     [Google Scholar]
  73. Mills, C. W. (1956). The Power Elite. Oxford University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  74. Mitra, B., Webb, M., & Wolfe, C. (2014). Audience Responses to the Physical Appearance of Television Newsreaders. Participations: Journal of Audience & Reception Studies, 11(2), 45-57.
     [Google Scholar]
  75. Mobius, M. M., & Rosenblatt, T. S. (2006). Why Beauty Matters. The American Economic Review, 96(1), 222-235. https://doi.org/10.1257/000282806776157515
     [Google Scholar]
  76. Monk Jr, E. P., Esposito, M. H., & Lee, H. (2021). Beholding Inequality: Race, Gender, and Returns to Physical Attractiveness in the United States. American Journal of Sociology, 127(1), 194-241. https://doi.org/10.1086/715141
     [Google Scholar]
  77. Mythen, G. (2021). The critical theory of world risk society: A retrospective analysis. Risk Analysis, 41(3), 533-543. https://doi.org/10.1111/risa.13159
     [Google Scholar]
  78. Nielsen, F. (2007). Economic Inequality, Pareto, and Sociology: The Route Not Taken. American Behavioral Scientist, 50(5), 619-638. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764206295019
     [Google Scholar]
  79. Pareto, V. (1935). The Mind and Society: A Treatise on General Sociology (Vol. III). Harcourt, Brace and Company.
     [Google Scholar]
  80. Peterson, R. A., & Kern, R. M. (1996). Changing highbrow taste: From snob to omnivore. American Sociological Review, 61(5), 900-907. https://doi.org/10.2307/2096460
     [Google Scholar]
  81. Prieur, A., & Savage, M. (2013). Emerging forms of cultural capital. European Societies, 15(2), 246-267. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616696.2012.748930
     [Google Scholar]
  82. Putnam, R. D. (1995). Bowling Alone: America’s Declining Social Capital. Journal of Democracy, 61(1), 65-78.
     [Google Scholar]
  83. Qi, Y., Reijneveld, S. A., Almansa, J., Brouwer, S., & Vrooman, J. C. (2024). Diverging death risks: Mortality as a corollary of economic, social, cultural and person capital. SSM-Population Health, 25, 101644. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2024.101644
     [Google Scholar]
  84. Qi, Y., Vrooman, J. C., Almansa, J., Ots, P., Brouwer, S., & Reijneveld, S. A. (2023). A capital-based approach to better understand health inequalities: Theoretical and empirical explorations. SSM-Population Health, 21, 101309. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352827322002889
     [Google Scholar]
  85. Reckwitz, A. (2017). The Invention of Creativity: Modern Society and the Culture of the New. Polity.
     [Google Scholar]
  86. Reeves, A., Friedman, S., Rahal, C., & Flemmen, M. (2017). The Decline and Persistence of the Old Boy: Private Schools and Elite Recruitment 1897 to 2016. American Sociological Review, 82, 1139-1166. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122417735742
     [Google Scholar]
  87. Rössel, J., Schenk, P., & Weingartner, S. (2021). The Aesthetic Moment in Markets. In A.Maurer (Ed.), Handbook of Economic Sociology for the 21st Century: New Theoretical Approaches, Empirical Studies and Developments (pp. 95-111). Springer.
     [Google Scholar]
  88. Sandel, M. J. (2020). The Tyranny of Merit: What’s Become of the Common Good?Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
     [Google Scholar]
  89. Sarpila, O., Koivula, A., Kukkonen, I., Åberg, E., & Pajunen, T. (2020). Double standards in the accumulation and utilisation of ‘aesthetic capital’. Poetics, 82, 101447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.poetic.2020.101447
     [Google Scholar]
  90. Sarpila, O., Kukkonen, I., Pajunen, T., & Åberg, E. (2021). Appearance as Capital; The Normative Regulation of Aesthetic Capital Accumulation and Conversion. Emerald Publishing.
     [Google Scholar]
  91. Savage, M. (2025). Social class, wealth and multidimensional inequalities: The Great British Class Survey after ten years. Mens & Maatschappij, forthcoming.
     [Google Scholar]
  92. Savage, M., Cunningham, N., Devine, F., Friedman, S., Laurison, D., McKenzie, L., Miles, A., Snee, H., & Wakeling, P. (2015). Social Class in the 21th Century. Penguin Random House.
     [Google Scholar]
  93. Savage, M., Devine, F., Cunningham, N., Taylor, M., Li, Y., Hjellbrekke, J., Le Roux, B., Friedman, S., & Miles, A. (2013). A New Model of Social Class? Findings from the BBC’s Great British Class Survey Experiment. Sociology, 47(2), 219-250. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038513481128
     [Google Scholar]
  94. Schneider-Kamp, A. (2020). Health capital: Toward a conceptual framework for understanding the construction of individual health. Social Theory & Health, 19(3), 205. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41285-020-00145-x
     [Google Scholar]
  95. Schwartz, C. R. (2013). Trends and Variation in Assortative Mating: Causes and Consequences. Annual Review of Sociology, 39, 451-470. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-071312-145544
     [Google Scholar]
  96. Skocpol, T. (1995). Social Policy in the United States: Future Possibilities in Historical Perspective. Princeton University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  97. Slabbekoorn, J. (2025). Intersectional Disparities in Benefit Receipt: A Capital-Based Approach. PhD thesis Utrecht University (forthcoming).
     [Google Scholar]
  98. Slabbekoorn, J., Maas, I., & Vrooman, J. C. (2024). Intersectionality and benefit receipt: The interplay between education, gender, age and migration background. Plos One, 19(11), e0311241. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0311241
     [Google Scholar]
  99. Statistics Netherlands. (2022). New classification of population by origin; Replacing classification based on migration background and the concepts western/ non-westernhttps://tinyurl.com/mbhxz4ef
  100. Stiglitz, J. E. (2012). The Price of Inequality. W.W. Norton & Company.
     [Google Scholar]
  101. Thijssen, L., Coenders, M., & Lancee, B. (2021). Ethnic discrimination in the Dutch labor market: differences between ethnic minority groups and the role of personal information about job applicants; Evidence from a field experiment. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 22(3), 1125-1150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-020-00795-w
     [Google Scholar]
  102. Tuppat, J., & Gerhards, J. (2021). Immigrants’ First Names and Perceived Discrimination: A Contribution to Understanding the Integration Paradox. European Sociological Review, 37(1), 121-135. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcaa041
     [Google Scholar]
  103. van de Werfhorst, H. G. (2014). Changing societies and four tasks of schooling: Challenges for strongly differentiated educational systems. International Review of Education, 60, 123-144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-014-9410-8
     [Google Scholar]
  104. van der Gaag, M., & Snijders, T. A. (2005). The Resource Generator: Social capital quantification with concrete items. Social Networks, 27(1), 1-29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socnet.2004.10.001
     [Google Scholar]
  105. van Tubergen, F., & Volker, B. (2015). Inequality in Access to Social Capital in the Netherlands. Sociology, 49(3), 521-538. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038514543294
     [Google Scholar]
  106. von Rudiger, A., & Stiglitz, J. E. (Eds.). (2022). The Great Polarization: How Ideas, Power, and Policies Drive Inequality. Columbia University Press. https://doi.org/10.7312/arni19926.
     [Google Scholar]
  107. Vrooman, C. (2014). Visies op verschil. In C.Vrooman, M.Gijsberts, & J.Boelhouwer (Eds.), Verschil in Nederland; Sociaal en Cultureel Rapport 2014 (pp. 29-66). Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau. https://tinyurl.com/mv5ua92p
     [Google Scholar]
  108. Vrooman, J. C., Boelhouwer, J., & Gijsberts, M. (2024). A contemporary class structure: Capital disparities in The Netherlands. Plos One, 19(1), Article e0296443. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296443
     [Google Scholar]
  109. Vrooman, C., Boelhouwer, J., Iedema, J., & van der Torre, A. (2023). Eigentijdse ongelijkheid: De postindustriële klassenstructuur op basis van vier typen kapitaal – Verschil in Nederland 2023. Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau. https://tinyurl.com/w282n4sx
     [Google Scholar]
  110. Warhurst, C., & Nickson, D. (2020). Aesthetic Labour. Sage.
     [Google Scholar]
  111. Welsch, W. (1996). Aestheticization Processes: Phenomena, Distinctions and Prospects. Theory, Culture & Society, 13(1), 1-24.
     [Google Scholar]
  112. Williams, C. L., & Connell, C. (2010). “Looking Good and Sounding Right”: Aesthetic Labor and Social Inequality in the Retail Industry. Work and Occupations, 37(3), 349-377. https://doi.org/10.1177/0730888410373744
     [Google Scholar]
  113. Woodman, D., Threadgold, S., & Possamai-Inesedy, A. (2015). Prophet of a new modernity: Ulrich Beck’s legacy for sociology. Journal of Sociology, 51(4), 1117-1131. https://doi.org/10.1177/1440783315621166
     [Google Scholar]
  114. Wright, E. O. (2005). Approaches to Class Analysis. Cambridge University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  115. Yang, K. (2024). Analysing Intersectionality: A Toolbox of Methods. Sage.
     [Google Scholar]
  116. Zschirnt, E., & Ruedin, D. (2016). Ethnic discrimination in hiring decisions: A meta-analysis of correspondence tests 1990–2015. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 42(7), 1115-1134. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2015.1133279
     [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.5117/MEM2025.2.003.VROO
Loading
Capitals, social classes and intersectionality: Quantitative analyses of multidimensional disparities in the Netherlands
M&M 100, 143 (2025); https://doi.org/10.5117/MEM2025.2.003.VROO
/content/journals/10.5117/MEM2025.2.003.VROO
/content/journals/10.5117/MEM2025.2.003.VROO
Loading

Data & Media loading...

Keyword(s): beauty; cultural capital; education; health; income; inequality; intersectionality; resources; social class; social networks; wealth

Most Cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error